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15 June 2026, Volume 45 Issue 6 Previous Issue   

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Research on the application of acoustic emission technology in monitoring and early warning of thermal runaway of lithium⁃ion batteries Liu Bingxi, Ma Chang, Zhang Jin, Zhuo Ping, Li Fumin, Bi Xiaoyang 2026, 45 (6):  1-7.  doi: 10. 20168/j. 1009-0029. 2026. 06. 0001. 07 Abstract ( 101 )   This paper investigates the feasibility of acoustic emission detection technology for ultra-early identification of the incubation stage of thermal runaway in lithium-ion batteries. An experimental platform was established, integrating various monitoring devices including charge-discharge equipment, an acoustic emission system, a battery voltage acquisition system, and a battery temperature acquisition system. By acquiring the elastic wave characteristics generated inside lithium-ion batteries during normal charge-discharge cycles and during thermal runaway induced by overcharging, a neural network model was constructed for training and identification. The results show that， during normal charge-discharge, the acoustic emission signal amplitude is distributed within ±0.04 V, with a dominant frequency of 220 kHz and characteristic frequencies at 60， 100, 180 kHz; during overcharging, multiple outlier points exceeding this range appear in the signal amplitude, and a new characteristic frequency emerges at 20 kHz. Using a convolutional neural network to process and train the grayscale images of spectral information, the model achieves a classification accuracy of 99.87% for acoustic emission signals and maintains a high accuracy in cross-validation. This acoustic emission monitoring method can identify and differentiate the early, middle, and late stages of the thermal runaway incubation process in lithium-ion batteries, thereby enabling monitoring and early warning of thermal runaway. Related Articles | Metrics

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Research on the grading and early warning technology of thermal runaway for aviation lithium batteries Yang Juan, Wu Minghao, Liu Tiantian, Zhang Qingsong 2026, 45 (6):  8-18.  doi: 10.20168/j.1009-0029.2026.06.0008.11 Abstract ( 53 )   The safety of lithium batteries is a core requirement for the airworthiness certification of electric aircraft. Developing an effective thermal runaway early warning system is of great significance for ensuring the safety of lithium battery systems in aviation. This study analyzes the changes in the impedance phase angle of lithium battery electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) with temperature and state of charge (SOC) through experiments. A thermal runaway experimental platform is used to monitor the changes in AC impedance during the thermal triggering process of lithium batteries at characteristic frequencies in real time. At the same time, the Raman spectrum changes of organic solvent gases discharged in the early stage of thermal runaway after the battery safety valve is opened are monitored. The experimental results show that the impedance phase angle at a frequency of 200 Hz is strongly correlated with battery temperature and is less affected by the state of charge of the battery. The minimum value of battery impedance amplitude and the phase angle at this time are determined as the first-level early warning characteristic points, the sudden increase in amplitude as the second-level early warning characteristic points, the sharp drop in voltage as the third-level early warning characteristic points, and the minimum peak height difference of organic solvent of 358 a.u and the peak height difference of N₂ of 131 a.u selected through gas analysis as the fourth-level early warning characteristic points for gas. An integrated four-level early warning strategy for lithium battery thermal runaway is proposed based on the multi-parameter characteristic values of battery impedance, voltage, and early thermal runaway gases, which provides a reference for the design of early warning systems for thermal runaway in aviation lithium batteries. Related Articles | Metrics

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Research on early warning of thermal runaway of lithium-ion battery at different state of charge based on multi-parameter coupling Zhang Boya, Xing Zhixiang, Liu Yecheng, Han Han 2026, 45 (6):  19-26.  doi: 10.20168/j.1009-0029.2026.06.0019.08 Abstract ( 21 )   Thermal runaway of lithium-ion batteries is accompanied by signal variations such as temperature rise, voltage drop, and volume expansion which are of great significance for battery performance evaluation and safety warning. In this paper, lithium-ion batteries with a ternary/graphite system are taken as the research object. The variation characteristics of temperature, voltage and expansion force signals during thermal runaway are explored at different state of charge (0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, 100%), and a three-level early warning scheme based on multi-parameter coupling is proposed. The results show that with the increase of state of charge, the thermal runaway trigger time of lithium-ion batteries is shortened, the maximum temperature during thermal runaway is increased, and the expansion force changes more rapidly with a higher stress peak. The reason is that batteries at higher state of charge store more energy, leading to more intense internal chemical reactions in the thermal runaway process. Meanwhile, it is found that the variation of expansion force precedes temperature and voltage signals by approximately 300 s during thermal runaway. The three-level early warning method dominated by expansion force provides sufficient time for implementing control measures. Related Articles | Metrics

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Research on monitoring and early warning technology for thermal runaway of lithium-ion battery based on strain parameters Zhang Jin, Ma Chang, Liu Bingxi, Zhuo Ping 2026, 45 (6):  27-33.  doi: 10.20168/j.1009-0029.2026.06.0027.07 Abstract ( 22 )   To prevent the risk of battery thermal runaway fire, 280 Ah square lithium iron phosphate batteries were selected for the study of strain parameter-based monitoring and early warning technology for thermal runaway of lithium-ion battery. The variation of strain parameters with respect to voltage and temperature parameters under different test conditions was obtained. The results show that the strain sensor can accurately capture the expansion changes of the lithium-ion battery in the early stage of thermal runaway. In overcharge to thermal runaway environments, the strain parameter reaches its maximum magnitude first compared to the voltage and temperature parameters. In heating to thermal runaway environments, the strain parameter changes faster and reaches its maximum magnitude first compared to the voltage and temperature parameters. In a comprehensive comparison, the strain parameter have a better degree of sensitivity and response during the thermal runaway gestation phase. Therefore, using strain parameters can achieve early monitoring and warning of lithium-ion battery thermal runaway, and has the advantages of rapid change, high accuracy, easy installation, and low cost. Related Articles | Metrics

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Research on tiered early warning and prevention-control strategies for thermal runaway in lithium-ion battery energy storage units Sun Peng, Fan Hongkai, Wang Yichao, Geng Xuewen, Gao Zhiyuan 2026, 45 (6):  34-42.  doi: 10.20168/j.1009-0029.2026.06.0034.09 Abstract ( 27 )   Lithium-ion batteries, as complex electrochemical devices, face increasingly prominent fire safety risks. This study conducted overcharge-induced thermal runaway（TR） experiments on a 280 Ah lithium-ion phosphate battery module. By collecting and analyzing the developmental patterns of battery voltage, temperature/temperature rise, and characteristic gases at different stages of TR progression, we proposed a hierarchical early warning method for lithium-ion battery TR that integrates multi-feature signals of voltage, temperature, and gas. Based on the hierarchical warning results, a TR prevention and control strategy was developed from a practical engineering perspective, combining the battery management system (BMS) of electrochemical energy storage with fire protection systems. The strategy was validated through TR tests on both 280 Ah and 314 Ah energy storage battery units. Experimental results demonstrate that the proposed early warning and prevention method can issue alarm signals at least 3 min earlier than pressure relief valve activation and more than 15 min earlier than the onset of TR, while initiating corresponding protective and firefighting measures based on the risk severity of TR. Related Articles | Metrics

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Built-in sensing technologies for early warning systems in lithium-ion battery fires Li Changhao, Zhang Dongsheng, Zhang Guangtai, Cao Yuancheng, Cheng Qi, 6 2026, 45 (6):  43-48.  doi: 10.20168/j.1009-0029.2026.06.0043.06 Abstract ( 25 )   Thermal runaway early warning for lithium-ion batteries remains a critical challenge in the safety management of new energy vehicles. Conventional external sensors are limited in their ability to detect internal early fault indicators, whereas built-in sensing technology enables in-situ and real-time monitoring of multiple parameters, such as temperature, strain and gas, by embedding miniaturized sensors into critical internal regions of the battery, thereby significantly improving the timeliness and accuracy of early warnings. This paper provides a comprehensive review of recent advances in built-in sensing technologies, including fiber Bragg grating strain sensors, flexible thin-film temperature sensors, and their multi-functional integrated systems, with particular emphasis on their effectiveness in detecting early thermal runaway signals. Additionally, the paper critically analyzes key challenges encountered in practical applications, such as material compatibility, structural integration, multi-signal decoupling, signal transmission reliability, and long-term operational stability. It further emphasizes that the integration of intelligent algorithms with multi-physical sensing represents a promising approach for developing next-generation active battery safety systems. Related Articles | Metrics

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Experimental study on the thermal runaway characteristics of lithium-ion batteries after immersion in different types of salt solutions Peng Wei, Zhu Siting, Zhang Shaojie 2026, 45 (6):  49-54.  doi: 10.20168/j.1009-0029.2026.06.0049.06 Abstract ( 18 )   To investigate the thermal runaway characteristics of lithium-ion batteries under different immersion conditions, this study takes the 18650 ternary lithium-ion battery as the research object and analyzes its performance changes after immersion in different types of salt solutions, as well as its surface temperature characteristics during thermal runaway. The results show that the corrosive and discharge effects of different salt solutions on lithium-ion batteries vary. Among the three salt solutions tested, NaCl solution exhibits the strongest effect on the discharge and corrosion of the batteries. Lithium-ion batteries soaked in all three salt solutions can undergo thermal runaway. As the immersion time increases, both the time required and the onset temperature for triggering thermal runaway increase. When the immersion time is 2 h, the initial thermal runaway temperature of batteries soaked in NaCl and Na2SO4 solutions is higher than that of dry batteries, while that of batteries soaked in Na2CO3 solution is lower. Moreover, the maximum surface temperature of lithium-ion batteries during thermal runaway after immersion is higher than that of dry batteries, with the peak temperature decreasing in the order of NaCl, Na₂SO₄, and Na₂CO₃ solutions. Although salt solution immersion raises the thermal runaway onset temperature of lithium-ion batteries to a certain extent, the corrosion caused by the solution increases the risk of thermal runaway. Therefore, the safe disposal of water-exposed lithium-ion batteries requires simultaneous consideration of the degree of damage and the state of charge to comprehensively assess the risk of thermal runaway. Related Articles | Metrics

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Analysis of explosion characteristics and mechanism of mixed dust from used lithium iron phosphate batteries Guan Wenling, Wang Liyong, Ren Changxing, Zhang Wang, Yang Mingrui 2026, 45 (6):  55-61.  doi: 10.20168/j.1009-0029.2026.06.0055.07 Abstract ( 19 )   In order to study the explosion characteristics of mixed dust from lithium iron phosphate batteries, the Siwek-20 L explosion test device was used to investigate the lower explosion limit, the pressure generated by the explosion, the rate of increase in explosion pressure and the explosion index of lithium iron phosphate battery dust. At the same time, the thermal stability of the organic components of lithium iron phosphate batteries was analyzed by means of a thermogravimetric analyzer. The results show that in the organic components of lithium iron phosphate batteries, polypropylene begins to decompose at 257.55 ℃, and the mass loss rate reaches 98.70% when it rises to 440.60 ℃. Polyvinylidene fluoride exhibits good thermal stability below 400.00 ℃. When the temperature rises to 402.73~504.89 ℃, its weight loss rate increases significantly, with a mass loss rate of approximately 62.63%. The lower explosive limit concentration of lithium iron phosphate battery dust with a median particle size (D50) of 17.69 μm is 660~680 g/m³, the maximum explosion pressure is 0.439 MPa, the maximum pressure rise rate is 18.752 MPa/s, the maximum explosion index is 5.09 MPa•m/s. According to the ISO 6184-1∶1985 classification standard, the explosion hazard level is St 1, and the explosion attribute is weak. Related Articles | Metrics

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Study on the inhibitory effect of insulation materials on lithium iron phosphate batteries thermal runaway Jia Boyan, Cai Ziwen, Zhang Guowei, Ouyang Chenliang 2026, 45 (6):  62-67.  doi: 10.20168/j.1009-0029.2026.06.0062.06 Abstract ( 10 )   How to effectively isolate the heat transfer between lithium-ion battery modules and suppress the thermal runaway propagation of lithium-ion batteries has always been a concern in the field of fire protection. In order to explore the inhibitory effect of thermal insulation materials on the thermal runaway propagation of lithium battery modules, this work built a battery thermal runaway experimental platform. Taking 75 Ah lithium iron phosphate battery as the experimental object, four thermal insulation materials, namely aerogel felt, ceramic fiber paper, mica board and glass fiber felt, were selected to study the inhibitory effect of thermal insulation materials in the process of thermal runaway propagation. The research results indicate that without insulation layer protection, thermal runaway will rapidly propagate between lithium battery modules, and flame superposition will further accelerate the propagation speed of thermal runaway; Four insulation materials with a thickness of 3 mm can successfully weaken the heat transfer between batteries and suppress the propagation of thermal runaway in lithium-ion batteries; In terms of thermal insulation performance, compared with glass fiber felt, mica board and ceramic fiber paper, the thermal insulation effect of aerogel felt increased by 16%, 23% and 35% respectively. This study can enrich the application of thermal insulation materials in the process of lithium battery fire prevention. Related Articles | Metrics

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Study on the whole process of firefighting in lithium-ion battery energy storage power stations Cai Fakui, Zhang Chao 2026, 45 (6):  68-72.  doi: 10.20168/j.1009-0029.2026.06.0068.05 Abstract ( 27 )   By studying the fire of a skid-mounted electrochemical energy storage station, reconstruct the thermal runaway propagation process of the battery prefabrication cabin, analyze the features of the smoke and temperature development while firefighting, explore the firefighting tactics and the effect of different combinations of firefighting equipment, specify the key difficulties of firefighting, propose the firefighting tactics for skid-mounted electrochemical energy storage station and provide reference for fire and rescue teams to deal with this type of fire. Related Articles | Metrics

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Research on fire hazard classification of common solid nitrates Bai Xiaojun, Ren Haiping, Gong Hui, Zhao Zhuoyi, Liu Hang 2026, 45 (6):  73-78.  doi: 10.20168/j.1009-0029.2026.06.0073.06 Abstract ( 8 )   The classification of fire hazard for solid storage in current fire protection codes mainly refers to the Regulations on the transport of dangerous goods and the List of dangerous goods issued in 1971. Fire hazards corresponding to Class I and Class II dangerous substances in this list are categorized as Class A and Class B, respectively. In 2005, List of dangerous goods issued by the transportation authorities was formally abolished, along with the classification method for Class I and Class II substances. However, the core basis for fire hazard classification in GB 50016—2006 Code for fire protection design of buildings has not been revised accordingly. According to the standard GB 30000.15—2013 Rules for classification and labelling of chemicals-Part 15: Oxidizing solids, common solid nitrates such as potassium nitrate and sodium nitrate fall under oxidizing solid category 3. Nevertheless, the GB 50160—2008, 2018 Edition Fire prevention standard for petrochemical enterprises design still refers to the GBJ 16—87 Code for fire protection design of buildings and classifies them as Class A. This study introduces the GB 30000.15 standard and the current Classification information table of hazardous chemicals as new reference bases for the fire hazard classification of common solid nitrates, establishing a correspondence between the oxidizing category of nitrates and the fire hazard classification. Related Articles | Metrics

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A deep learning framework for real-time reconstruction of tunnel fire temperature fields： model design and deployment Zhang Zhonghua, Liu Jiang, Liu Lei, Wu Ke, Zhang Tianhang 2026, 45 (6):  79-89.  doi: 10.20168/j.1009-0029.2026.06.0079.11 Abstract ( 38 )   Tunnel fires are characterized by their sudden occurrence, rapid smoke propagation, and low visibility, posing severe threats to transportation infrastructure and the safety of tunnel users. To address these challenges, this study proposes a real-time temperature field reconstruction model for tunnel fires based on a Transposed Convolutional Neural Network (TCNN). Furthermore, a “hierarchical perception fire scene strategy” is introduced, which enables AI models trained on local tunnel segments to be deployed in full-scale tunnel environments, thereby overcoming the limitations of traditional temperature measurement methods in terms of spatial coverage, real-time capability, and cost-effectiveness. The TCNN model efficiently captures the spatial features of the fire temperature field through transposed convolution layers, allowing precise inversion of the temperature distribution in tunnel fires. The model is developed, trained, and evaluated using a modular Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS) simulation database. On this basis, a deployment framework is designed that integrates Kafka message queues and WebSocket protocols to achieve asynchronous transmission of inference results and real-time front-end visualization. A dual-thread control mechanism is also implemented to enable intelligent state switching and system control. The proposed method provides a viable technical pathway and engineering reference for the design and implementation of intelligent fire protection systems in tunnel environments. Related Articles | Metrics

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Research on on-site testing methods of centralized control emergency lighting and evacuation indication system Wang Ning, Li Zhixin, Ma Jianming 2026, 45 (6):  90-95.  doi: 10.20168/j.1009-0029.2026.06.0090.06 Abstract ( 14 )   The fire emergency lighting and evacuation indication system is a fire fighting subsystem that provides basic lighting and guides evacuation for personnel in the event of an emergency. With the development of intelligent technology and the continuous popularization of high-rise buildings, centralized control fire emergency lighting and evacuation indication system have been widely used. Due to the particularity of the system products and the complexity of on-site testing, the real health status of the centralized control fire emergency lighting and evacuation indication system has not been effectively supervised. This paper refines and analyzes several key functions and performance of the system that affect its project application, and provides an effective and quick way to determine whether the system meets the acceptance criteria and whether it needs maintenance and upkeep. The on-site testing method includes the acquisition and analysis of surface brightness, ground horizontal illumination, emergency response time, conversion time, communication quality and other related signals, and is verified by specific experiments that the method is feasible and effective. Related Articles | Metrics

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Study on fire smoke spread patterns in TOD crystal canyon under thermal barrier effect Feng Tao, Ma Panwen, He Lu, Zhu Guoqing 2026, 45 (6):  96-104.  doi: 10.20168/j.1009-0029.2026.06.0096.09 Abstract ( 10 )   Against the backdrop of national land planning and the strategy of building a country with strong transportation networks, the Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) model has become one of the key research approaches for the planning and construction of rail transit station areas in China. To address the issue of natural smoke exhaust failure caused by the thermal barrier effect in the large atriums of TOD complexes, this study takes an actual TOD complex as a prototype, establishes a numerical model of an 80 m high large atrium space, and constructs a 1∶15 scaled-down test bench for model validation. The study investigates the smoke spread patterns and smoke exhaust optimization strategies under the thermal barrier effect in the atrium space through numerical simulation and reduced-scale experiments. The results show that the temperature distribution in the large space is uneven, with a certain vertical temperature gradient (0.05~0.60 K/m). The thermal barrier effect prevents smoke from spreading to the ceiling, rendering the natural smoke exhaust vents at the top ineffective. Placing smoke exhaust outlets at the thermal barrier interface or adopting a dispersed multi-layer arrangement can effectively improve smoke exhaust efficiency, with the best performance achieved when outlets are arranged at the thermal barrier interface. Related Articles | Metrics

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Comparative study on droplet characteristics and fire extinguishing performance of perfluorohexanone and perfluoroheptanone for local application Zhao Qingsong, Ma Jianqin, Wang Haoxuan, Hua Zhichao, Wang Sai, Yang Fan 2026, 45 (6):  105-111.  doi: 10.20168/j.1009-0029.2026.06.0105.07 Abstract ( 11 )   This study comparatively investigates the droplet characteristics and fire extinguishing performance of perfluorohexanone and perfluoroheptanone under identical local application conditions. A droplet size measurement system and a 2A wood crib fire test were conducted using the same nozzle configuration and charging conditions. The droplet size results indicate that, under the same discharge pressure, perfluoroheptanone exhibits significantly larger characteristic diameters (D10, D50, D90 and D99) than perfluorohexanone, with a higher proportion of large droplets and a more stable jet structure. In contrast, perfluorohexanone produces smaller and more uniformly distributed droplets with better dispersion characteristics. The 2A wood crib fire tests demonstrate that both agents can successfully extinguish the fire under the same 20 kg charging condition; however, perfluoroheptanone achieves a shorter extinguishing time, higher peak nozzle pressure, and greater mass flow rate, resulting in a faster fire suppression response. Comprehensive analysis shows that droplet size distribution and jet momentum characteristics play a crucial role in local application fire suppression. Larger droplets with stronger momentum are more capable of penetrating flame plumes and wood crib structures, facilitating the formation of a locally high-concentration extinguishing zone in the combustion core region and thereby improving suppression efficiency. The results provide experimental support for the engineering application and design optimization of fluorinated ketone agents in local application fire extinguishing systems. Related Articles | Metrics

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Cooling effect and influence mechanisms of PEO-containing water-based fire extinguishing agent droplets on high-temperature surfaces Zhang Kai, Wang Xishi, Ni Xiaomin, Tao Ruiqing, Wang Wenjie, Kong Shuai 2026, 45 (6):  112-121.  doi: 10.20168/j.1009-0029.2026.06.0112.10 Abstract ( 12 )   Addressing engineering problems such as thermal runaway protection in new energy batteries and fire suppression in ultra-high voltage substations, rapid cooling of high-temperature solid surfaces plays a pivotal role in hazard control. While water mist/spray demonstrates superior phase-change cooling capacity, droplet fragmentation and splashing induced by boiling and inertial impact substantially compromise its cooling efficiency. This study modulates droplet dynamics through the polyethylene oxide (PEO) additive (700×10-6) to enhance the cooling effect. Single-droplet impact experiments revealed distinct cooling mechanisms: At approximately 200 ℃, where stable vapor film formation was inhibited, PEO-containing droplets demonstrated enhanced surface adhesion and suppressed fragmentation, achieving up to 4.3 times greater temperature differential and 10% faster cooling rate compared to pure water. Conversely, at around 400 ℃, where stable vapor films developed, the improved droplet integrity of PEO solutions paradoxically reduced heat absorption capacity due to more effective vapor layer insulation. Spray cooling experiments further demonstrated that rheological modification could significantly enhance the cooling performance of water under contact boiling. This approach showed particular promise for improving the thermal runaway suppression in batteries during the early stages. Related Articles | Metrics

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Forest fire distribution and forecasting model in Yunnan Province based on satellite monitoring hotspots Zhang Yuchen, He Cheng 2026, 45 (6):  122-127.  doi: 10.20168/j.1009-0029.2026.06.0122.06 Abstract ( 22 )   This study is based on multi-source satellite hotspot data and ERA5-Land meteorological data from 2001 to 2024. The spatiotemporal distribution characteristics of hotspots were extracted using GIS spatial analysis. Multiple linear regression（MLR) and autoregressive moving average(ARMA) models were employed to analyze the driving mechanisms of meteorological factors, with model parameters optimized using the Akaike Information Criterion(AIC). On this basis, a provincial local dual-layer prediction framework was constructed to overcome the limitations of traditional monitoring methods. Multiple linear regression analysis revealed that climatic factors exert a significant driving effect on regional environmental changes, the annual mean temperature (β = 0.38, p < 0.001) shows a strong positive correlation with the dependent variable; The moisture coefficient (β =-0.29, p = 0.005) exhibits a significant inhibitory effect; and the annual mean wind speed (β = 0.18, p = 0.006), despite a relatively modest increment, remains statistically significant, indicating its sustained contribution to environmental change. The results further show that forest fire hotspots during from 2015 to 2024 exhibit a fluctuating downward trend, mainly concentrated in southwestern and southeastern Yunnan; both the provincial multiple linear regression model and the local model for Kunming demonstrate satisfactory predictive performance. Nevertheless, future work should integrate machine learning methods and terrain data to enhance model applicability in topographically complex regions. This study provides theoretical support and technical reference for forest fire prevention and control in southwestern China, and is of significant value for safeguarding ecological security and reducing economic losses. Related Articles | Metrics

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Research on the application of CO₂-based spectral LiDAR detection in forest fire identification Shi Kuan, You Zheng, Bai Ye, Qi Fangzhong, Wu Yingda, Gong Dapeng, Yuan Binhao, Shang Mingbao 2026, 45 (6):  128-135.  doi: 10.20168/j.1009-0029.2026.06.0128.08 Abstract ( 12 )   Traditional forest fire monitoring technologies, such as video surveillance, infrared thermal imaging, satellite remote sensing, and LiDAR, have certain limitations under conditions of complex terrain, variable weather, and long-range observation, which hinder high-precision, wide-coverage, and all-weather early fire detection. This study employed a cooled HgCdTe infrared detector, targeting the strong infrared radiative characteristics of CO₂ at the 4.3 μm wavelength. A panoramic scanning optical structure with a spatial coverage of 360° × 80° was constructed, and a dual-axis rotation system driven by stepper motors was implemented to enable spatial matrix data acquisition. The system integrated a high-speed analog-to-digital sampling platform, in which a Field-Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) performed a 144 s wide-area scan of the surveillance field and executed 46.08 million high-speed AD sampling cycles. Spatial signals were converted into panoramic spectral images using matrix transposition and column-reverse algorithms. A convolutional neural network, deployed on the cloud-based remote image analysis platform, was used to identify and quantify CO₂-featured regions, achieving AI-based precise fire detection. Fire localization was achieved through radar ranging combined with spatial positioning algorithms based on the BeiDou Navigation Satellite System. Field experiments were conducted using small-scale test fire sources under various weather conditions. The results showed that the CO₂-based spectral LiDAR system could accurately detect a small fire source (50 cm×80 cm) at a distance of 2.05 km. The system achieved an overall identification accuracy of 97.31%, with localization errors ranging from 25.2 m to 345.7 m. Spectral LiDAR monitoring technology based on CO₂ infrared radiation features offers high detection sensitivity, strong spatial resolution, and a high level of intelligent recognition, providing a novel solution for early forest fire identification. In the future, it can be integrated with satellite remote sensing and video surveillance to establish a space-air-ground integrated, multi-source forest fire monitoring system, thereby providing technical support for emergency response and ecological security in China's forest and grassland fire management. Related Articles | Metrics

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Comparative study on international compartment fire behavior training system Xie Hao, Sun Shaochen, Wang Pei, Zhang Caili 2026, 45 (6):  136-143.  doi: 10.20168/j.1009-0029.2026.06.0136.08 Abstract ( 21 )   Compartment Fire Behavior Training (CFBT) is a key method to enhance firefighters' practical combat capabilities. It helps fire rescue person master the laws of fire and smoke characteristics, improve their ability to assess and make decisions at fire scenes, and plays a vital role in optimizing practical strategies, improving rescue efficiency, and ensuring safety. This paper reveals the internal logic by researching the differentiated development paths of CFBT systems in the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, and China across three core elements: hardware standards, curriculum systems, and organizational implementation. The study finds that the CFBT systems in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia relatively exhibit characteristics of high modularity, strong adaptability, integration of theory and practice, and systemic resilience. Although CFBT in China started late, it developed rapidly. Currently, it places greater emphasis on skill training, and there is an urgent need to establish a standardized system. The research results indicate that China can explore the construction of a distinctive system featuring "stratified and coordinated standards with dynamic revision, modular curriculum design with systematic integration, and hierarchical organizational resilience with specialized certification". This system aims to promote hardware construction to achieve "national leadership, local supplementation, and dynamic iteration", transform the curriculum system from "skill-oriented" to "in-depth theory-practice modules", and in organizational implementation, explore a nested mode of professional qualification certification and promote the development and popularization of empirical models. Related Articles | Metrics

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Analysis of global standardization of fire prevention and protection products and strategy analysis of standard adoption Wang Shuai, Zhuang Shuang 2026, 45 (6):  144-149.  doi: 10.20168/j.1009-0029.2026.06.0144.06 Abstract ( 17 )   Against the backdrop of intensifying global technical trade barriers, to hold a sway over international standards has become critically important. This study focuses on the current state of the international standard system for fire protection and fire-extinguishing products, as well as strategies for the conversion of these standards, examining the working mechanisms of the ISO Technical Committee on Fire Prevention and Fire Extinguishing Equipment (ISO/TC21) and the global framework of fire protection standards. Currently, the international fire protection standards landscape is profoundly influenced by European and American countries, which leverage their advantages in technical complementarity, regional collaboration, and procedural rules to utilize key aspects of the process. Although China's participation and contribution have improved, challenges persist, including low acceptance rates of technical proposals, underrepresentation in key positions, and low efficiency in standard conversion. Through an analysis of ISO procedures and standard project workflows, this study proposes a series of strategies: establishing a collaborative management mechanism covering the entire life cycle of international standards to enable real-time monitoring of standard developments; conduct comprehensive project preliminary research, followed by appropriate topic selection and assessment of necessity and feasibility; adhering to ISO rules and selecting appropriate timelines based on project circumstances; standardizing the drafting of English proposals; build a "policy⁃regulation⁃technology⁃standard" four-in-one coordination mechanism to promote the integration of international standard-setting with technological R&D; and strengthening international standardization exchanges. By reinforcing the two-way empowerment between technological innovation and standards leadership, deepening engagement in international rule-making, the aim is to promote China's transformation from a "standard applier" to a "rule maker", providing Chinese solutions to global fire protection industry governance. Related Articles | Metrics

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American fire and emergency services higher education program and its implications Yan Zhanghui, Zhao Yaguang 2026, 45 (6):  150-156.  doi: 10.20168/j.1009-0029.2026.06.0150.07 Abstract ( 13 )   Education, especially higher education, is a prerequisite for the professionalization of firefighting industry. The American fire service recognized the importance of higher education early on and established the Fire and Emergency Services Higher Education (FESHE) program in 1998. This program outlines the development framework for the fire and rescue profession and establishes a mechanism for mutually beneficial, and interconnected mechanism between the government, universities, industry associations, and certification bodies. It broke down the barriers between higher education, training, and work experience, promoted the popularization of higher education in fire and rescue teams, and facilitated the professionalization of firefighting. Professionalization and specialization of fire and rescue teams are important goals for the development of China􀆳s emergency rescue teams. However, issues such as low professional recognition, insufficient higher education resources, and a lack of systematic training have hindered the development of China􀆳s fire and rescue teams. The FESHE program offers valuable insights for China in areas such as the landscape planning of the fire and rescue services, the expansion of higher education resources, and the establishment of collaborative mechanisms between the government, universities, industry associations, and certification bodies. Related Articles | Metrics