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15 September 2026, Volume 45 Issue 9 Previous Issue   

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Study on the spread law and suppression strategies of electric vehicle fires in underground garage Wang Zhi, Xie Rui, Yuan Diping, Zou Lei, Liu Changkang+AA1:A19 2026, 45 (9):  1-9.  doi: 10.20168/j.1009-0029.2026.09.0184.09 Abstract ( 69 )   PDF (6122KB) ( 10 )   Regarding the problem that electric vehicle fires in confined spaces such as underground garages are prone to triggering a chain combustion reaction, this study established a full-scale model of two vehicles based on FDS. Using heat release rate, ignition time of adjacent vehicle, temperature, and smoke characteristics as indicators, it comparatively analyzed the blocking effects of vehicle distance and fire baffle. The research indicates that simply increasing the distance between vehicles, although it significantly delays the ignition time from 700 s to 950 s, has a limited effect on ultimately cutting off the fire propagation pathways. Due to the heat accumulation effect within confined spaces, high-temperature smoke plumes and intense radiant heat may still trigger rapid chain combustion. In contrast, fire baffle can significantly restructure the path of hot smoke, and their inhibitory effect increases non-linearly with the increase in height. When the height of the baffle increases from 0.4 m to 1.8 m, the ignition time of adjacent vehicle significantly extends from 730 s to 1 120 s; when the height of the baffle is 2.2 m, the baffle forms a critical barrier that cuts off flame entrainment and radiant heat transfer, preventing adjacent vehicle from being ignited. This study confirms that in underground garage scenarios, adding high-positioned baffle is a more efficient prevention and control measure than adjusting distance, providing a scientific basis for fire protection design. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Full-scale fire protection research on electric vehicle in buildings based on innovative bottom-spray technology Yang Zhen, Zhong Jiahao, Xu Tao, Wang Yueyong, Wang Jianbiao, Zhang Jie 2026, 45 (9):  10-17.  Abstract ( 15 )   PDF (4798KB) ( 13 )   This paper constructs a semi-open indoor building scenario and conducts full-scale fire tests on new energy vehicle charging bays under the action of conventional building fire sprinkler systems and a new underfloor sprinkler system. By collecting ambient temperature and combustible gas data, the study deeply analyzes the influence of different fire suppression systems on the thermal runaway development characteristics of lithium-ion battery packs and the resulting fire control effectiveness. The results show that the conventional overhead sprinkler system fails to suppress the thermal runaway of the battery pack or the subsequent vehicle combustion process. In contrast, the new underfloor sprinkler system can rapidly detect thermal runaway in new energy vehicles and effectively mitigate and control the thermal runaway process of the battery pack. Based on the experimental process and results, engineering application recommendations for the new underfloor sprinkler technology are proposed. The research findings provide experimental support and design references for the early identification and engineering application of control technologies for thermal runaway characteristics of lithium-ion battery packs in building-integrated new energy vehicle charging lots. Related Articles | Metrics

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Research on extrusion deformation behavior and degradation mechanism of lithium-ion battery Liu Yangyang, Tan Zefei 2026, 45 (9):  18-24.  Abstract ( 14 )   PDF (2226KB) ( 3 )   Due to the strong nonlinear and multi-scale bidirectional coupling between mechanical deformation and electrochemical processes, involving complex interaction mechanisms from atomic scale to macroscopic scale, it is difficult to accurately analyze the force electrochemical coupling constitutive relationship in lithium battery extrusion deformation. Therefore, this study delves into the extrusion deformation behavior and performance degradation mechanism of lithium-ion batteries. The finite element model is constructed by combining the meso core layer element with the homogenized layer set model. The electrode sheet is characterized by the compressible foam material, and the diaphragm is simulated by the piecewise elastoplastic material. The elastic modulus of the homogeneous layer is calculated by the Voigt average method, and the stress distribution under the 12,24,36 kN extrusion load is simulated by the axisymmetric simplified method. Establishing a force electrochemical coupling model, introducing Larché-Cahn chemical potential theory to quantitatively characterize the influence of extrusion stress on lithium ion migration rate and chemical potential, revealing the electrochemical degradation mechanism of lithium ion redistribution caused by mechanical deformation, breaking through the limitations of traditional single physical field analysis, and providing new theoretical basis for the safe design of power batteries. Research has found that the stress concentration areas inside the battery during the squeezing process are mainly located at the junction of the battery electrodes and separators, and the strain in these areas significantly increases with the degree of squeezing. In terms of performance degradation, extrusion deformation can lead to structural damage to electrode materials, such as detachment of active materials, separation of electrodes and current collectors, and other phenomena. At the same time, it can also affect the diffusion channels of lithium ions, increasing the internal resistance of the battery and accelerating capacity degradation. The results of this study contribute to a deeper understanding of the behavioral characteristics of lithium-ion batteries under compression conditions, providing a theoretical basis for improving the safety and reliability of lithium-ion batteries. Related Articles | Metrics

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Research on risk influencing factors of gaseous hydrogen storage and transportation process based on DEMATEL-AISM Yan Jun, Wang Haodong, Zhao Min, Zhang Wanxin 2026, 45 (9):  25-31.  Abstract ( 6 )   PDF (1185KB) ( 5 )   To study the risks and influencing factors in the process of gaseous hydrogen storage and transportation, referring to the typical cases of gaseous hydrogen storage and transportation in 2000-2024 from the four major hydrogen accident databases such as HAID and H2Tools, 24 key risk influencing factors were screened out from the five links of hydrogen production, hydrogen storage, hydrogen transportation, hydrogen refueling and hydrogen use. The Apriori algorithm was used to mine the association rules, DEMATEL was used to calculated the centrality and causality of each factor and drew a scatter plot of the causality of the influencing factors, revealing the key causal factors and core outcome factors of the risk in the process of gaseous hydrogen storage and transportation; Combined with the AISM adversarial topological hierarchy, the three-layer and nine-level risk transmission paths of the gaseous hydrogen storage and transportation process are revealed, and four groups of strongly correlated loops are found; The MICMAC driver-dependency matrix is constructed to verify the validity of the AISM topology hierarchy results. Results showed that the influencing factors of hydrogen production have strong driving characteristics, which not only directly affect the subsequent links, but also indirectly affect the downstream risk factors through the complex causal chain; The influencing factors of hydrogen refueling and hydrogen consumption are more present in the fruiting layer and are more likely to be affected by upstream links; The hydrogen storage and hydrogen transportation links not only carry the risk transmission from the upstream, but also drive the risks of the downstream link, which should be paid great attention to. Related Articles | Metrics

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Simulation of the ablation heat transfer process of aerogel quartz fiber felt in high-temperature environments Miao Leshuai, Zheng Zhenrong, Shi Jianjun, Zhao Dongjin 2026, 45 (9):  32-38.  Abstract ( 6 )   PDF (1826KB) ( 2 )   Based on the ablation situation of aerogel quartz fiber felt at high temperatures, considering the processes such as heat capacity heat absorption, thermal decomposition heat absorption and heat dissipation from the escape of thermal decomposition gas of aerogel, a heat transfer simulation mathematical model of it under 1 000 ℃ high-temperature ablation was established, and it was verified by the Muffle furnace ablation experiment. The temperature distribution inside the aerogel quartz fiber felt, the temperature changes on the back of the fabric under different ablation modes, and the insulation contribution of aerogel to quartz fibers were predicted respectively by the heat transfer model. The results show that the back temperature of the aerogel quartz fiber felt predicted by the numerical model is very close to the experimental data, with an average relative error of 2.8%. By adopting the slow heating mode of heating from room temperature at a rate of 10 ℃/min to 1 000 ℃ and ablating for 1 500 s, when the fiber felt reached thermal equilibrium, the back temperature of the 25 mm thick aerogel fiber felt was finally 201.4 ℃, which was lower than the back temperature of 210.1 ℃ when directly heated at 1 000 ℃. They are all lower than the back temperature of the quartz fiber felt of the same specification without impregnation with aerogel, which is 215.4 ℃. Related Articles | Metrics

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Identification of burned areas and assessment of the vegetation recovery process based on Sentinel-2 time-series images Shi Kuan, Zhang Jiaxin, Gao Min, Qi Fangzhong, Zhang Jianan, Wu Yingda, Meng Shengwang, Bai Ye 2026, 45 (9):  39-45.  Abstract ( 11 )   PDF (4707KB) ( 8 )   Forest fires are a critical disturbance factor affecting ecosystem balance, timely and accurate monitoring of burned area extent and assessment of vegetation recovery essential for ecological restoration are important. In this study, we investigated the "3·30" forest fire that occurred on Yaji Mountain, Beijing, in 2019 using multi-temporal Sentinel-2 imagery. We comprehensively applied differential index thresholding methods (dNDVI, dBAI, and dNBR) and supervised classification approaches (Maximum Likelihood Classification (MLC), Support Vector Machine (SVM), and Random Forest (RF)) to extract burned areas, and employed the Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) to evaluate vegetation recovery dynamics during 2018―2025. The results showed that the Random Forest algorithm achieved the highest extraction accuracy, with an overall accuracy of 89.72% and a Kappa coefficient of 0.79. The total burned area in the study region was 91.1 hm2, of which low-severity burns accounted for 80.8%, while moderate-severity burns accounted for 14.8%，while high-severity burns accounted for 4.4% and were mainly distributed around the scenic area and within dense Pinus tabuliformis forests, indicating notable ecological risks. Time-series EVI analysis revealed that post-fire vegetation exhibited a rapid recovery trend; by 2021, EVI values in most areas had recovered to pre-fire levels, and the recovery process entered a relatively stable stage after 2022. However, this recovery mainly reflected the increased coverage of understory shrubs and grasses, whereas the long-term recovery of tree communities requires continuous monitoring. This study demonstrated the effectiveness of the Random Forest method for burned area extraction in complex mountainous environments, and the findings provide a scientific basis for post-fire ecological restoration and sustainable forest management. Related Articles | Metrics

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SMOTE and ANN based prediction study of fault arc igniting cable Chen Bin, Liu Yijin, Ma Junming, Zhang Xiaochun 2026, 45 (9):  46-52.  Abstract ( 7 )   PDF (1898KB) ( 5 )   To address the challenge of predicting cable fires, this paper proposes a prediction technology for cable ignition caused by fault arcs. In the research, an experimental platform was established to simulate the environment of arc fault ignition. Five common types of cable sheath materials were selected, and through experiments, the ignition conditions of cables under arc fault conditions were simulated. To build a more precise prediction model, this paper introduces multiple scientific evaluation indicators, such as precision and accuracy. The synthetic minority over-sampling technique (SMOTE) was used to optimize the data. Based on this, an artificial neural network (ANN) model was established with a 5-fold cross-validation step to verify the stability and reliability of the model, thereby achieving accurate prediction of cable ignition conditions. In addition, a comparative analysis was conducted with the Support Vector Machine (SVM) model. The final results show that the accuracy of the ANN model is as high as 85.7%, significantly better than the 72.73% accuracy of the SVM model. The results indicate that the proposed model can effectively predict cable ignition, providing a scientific basis for electrical fire prevention and the safety design of cable systems. Related Articles | Metrics

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Data-driven rapid fire smoke field virtual reality simulation method and application Zhang Yuxin, Ding Saizhe, Zhang Weijie, Huang Xinyan 2026, 45 (9):  53-60.  Abstract ( 8 )   PDF (3155KB) ( 4 )   In building fires, the rapid spread of smoke is one of the major factors leading to casualties and difficulties in rescue operations. This paper presents a rapid fire smoke field modeling method based on smoke sensor data. By acquiring the real-time optical extinction coefficient data from sensors, combined with a dual-agent deep learning model, we predict the fire source location (R2=97%) and smoke density field (R2=91%), and dynamically reconstruct the 3D smoke field using volume rendering technology in the virtual reality engine, Unreal Engine. This method significantly reduces the manpower and computational resource burden required for constructing smoke field scenes in traditional virtual reality systems, overcoming the technical bottlenecks of low modeling efficiency, complex operation processes, and lack of real-time control in conventional methods. It achieves rapid generation and dynamic visualization updates of the smoke field. This method is not only applicable for virtual fire-fighting training and behavioral simulation but also has excellent scalability, making it suitable for integration into smart building fire response systems and city-level digital twin platforms. Related Articles | Metrics

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Numerical simulation of mechanical smoke exhaust performance in large-space underground powerhouses fire of pumped storage power plant Zhang Jiaqing, Shang Fengju, Guo Yi 2026, 45 (9):  61-71.  Abstract ( 6 )   PDF (2601KB) ( 4 )   High voltage equipments are densely packed in the underground powerhouse of a pumped storage power plant (PSPP). characterized by its large, complex geometry and restricted ventilation, the powerhouse is prone to rapid smoke accumulation during a fire, threatening evacuation and equipment safety. Focusing on a typical PSPP’s generator floor and auxiliary building, this study develops a detailed fire dynamics model to simulate smoke spread from an electrical cabinet fire, with and without a mechanical smoke exhaust system. The evolution of smoke temperature, CO mole fraction, and visibility is analyzed quantitatively. Results show that without exhaust, smoke reaches the ceiling within seconds, with peak temperature and CO mole fraction at the source reaching 339 °C and 1 750×10-6; smoke penetrates lower passages within 200 s, severely reducing visibility. With the exhaust system activated, smoke-exhaust effect improve significantly: the peak temperature at the fire source is reduced by approximately 40.5%. In a fifth-floor auxiliary building fire scenario, visibility in walkways and lower stairwells improves by 28.5%~50%, and CO mole fraction decreases by about 20%~30%. This study demonstrates the smoke control effectiveness of mechanical exhaust in such complex environments, confirming its critical role in enhancing evacuation safety and mitigating risk, thereby providing technical support for optimizing fire protection design and emergency planning. Related Articles | Metrics

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Case study on the fire resistance performance of the fire stopping system in UHVDC converter station Zhu Hui, Yin Chaolu, Ji Jun, Nie Jingkai, Wang Xiaoming 2026, 45 (9):  72-80.  Abstract ( 6 )   PDF (4550KB) ( 7 )   In order to analyze the fire resistance performance of the fire stopping system in UHVDC converter Station, key areas of fire stopping system from two converter stations (Model 1, 2) were selected. Under the hydrocarbon (HC) temperature rise curve condition, the heat transfer process of the fire stopping systems was simulated using ANSYS software. Key thermodynamic parameters including temperature fields, heat flux, and temperature gradients were analyzed. The temperature rise characteristics were further investigated through fire resistance tests and one-dimensional heat conduction model. The results demonstrate: Maximum heat flux density occurs at square steel (stud) locations due to their high thermal conductivity and conduction efficiency. The temperature at measurement point c1 on the backfire surface of Model 1 exceeds 180 ℃, failing to meet fire resistance rating requirements for fire stopping systems. Temperature rise rates at measurement points f1 and f2 are 0.047 1 ℃/s and 0.015 9 ℃/s respectively. Temperature values calculated using the one-dimensional heat conduction model are lower than actual measurements from fire tests. The results indicate that the thermal insulation performance of Model 2 is superior to that of Model 1. Related Articles | Metrics

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BERT-BN integrated approach for fire risk assessment in commercial premises Wang Min, Ma Chunchen, Yang Mingxing, Ji Jingwei, Zhang Tengpu 2026, 45 (9):  81-89.  Abstract ( 15 )   PDF (1123KB) ( 3 )   To improve the accuracy and efficiency of traditional fire risk assessment methods for commercial premises, this paper proposes a fire risk assessment method based on the combination of the BERT algorithm and Bayesian Network (BN). By analyzing fire accident reports and expert assessment reports, a fire risk indicator system applicable to various types of commercial premises is established. The BERT algorithm is utilized to construct an automatic indicator generation model, enabling the automatic generation of fire risk indicators that match the characteristics of commercial premises. Based on the generated indicators, the Bayesian Network is employed to calculate the fire risk of commercial premises. Taking a large commercial complex as a case study, the matching indicators are obtained through the automatic generation model, and the Bayesian Network is used to calculate the probability distribution of each indicator node and the overall fire risk, thereby verifying the feasibility of the proposed method. Related Articles | Metrics

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Study on fire compartment and safe evacuation of a theater lobby Tian Yanhui 2026, 45 (9):  90-94.  Abstract ( 8 )   PDF (3245KB) ( 5 )   In recent years, theater-type buildings have increasingly featured a tall lobby, serving as an important area for the convergence and circulation of people and for resting, as well as functioning as a transportation hub and spatial transition zone. Taking a grand theater as an example, this tall lobby and the foyer are separated from the surrounding fire compartments on the first floor by special-class fire shutters, and the lobby connect the second and third floors. This arrangement presents issues such as excessively large fire compartment areas and overly long evacuation distances. Based on the relatively low combustible load in the fire compartment, a fire protection design scheme is proposed, and numerical simulation is used to verify the feasibility of the scheme in ensuring the safety of personnel evacuation. This study can serve as a reference for the fire protection design of similar theater buildings. Related Articles | Metrics

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Research on the measurement method of spray flow rate and time for the new high-boiling-point gas fire extinguishing system Yang Fan, Yi Chengyi, Sheng Yanfeng 2026, 45 (9):  95-103.  Abstract ( 6 )   PDF (2295KB) ( 3 )   The discharging flow rate and time are the core parameters for evaluating the fire suppression efficiency of new high-boiling-point gas fire suppression systems, such as those based on FK-5-1-12. This paper focuses on the complex gas-liquid two-phase flow characteristics during the discharging process of high-boiling-point fire suppressants, systematically comparing the applicability of turbine flowmeter, thermal mass flowmeter, and Coriolis mass flowmeter. Through actual measurement analysis, it is determined that the turbine flowmeter is the optimal measurement scheme. At the same time, combined with theoretical analysis and experimental verification, the physical determination criteria for the discharge stop point are established, achieving the objective definition of the start and stop times of the discharge. This measurement method has both high accuracy and universality, and can be applied to different system structures and operating conditions, with significant economic benefits and engineering guidance value. The research results could provide key technical support for the performance evaluation, design optimization, and standard formulation of new gas fire suppression systems. Related Articles | Metrics

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Research on key fire extinguishing technologies and applications of inert gas foam system Yang Fan, Cao Qiuyang, Meng Fei, Chen Tao, Wang Xingjie 2026, 45 (9):  104-111.  Abstract ( 3 )   PDF (6480KB) ( 0 )   This study employed a full-scale 220 kV oil-immersed transformer fire model to conduct fire extinguishing tests using the inert gas foam system (IGFS), verifying the effectiveness of the IGFS fire suppression solution and determining its application parameters. The results indicate that the IGFS system can effectively extinguish full-scale 220 kV oil-immersed transformer fires, with a rapid fire control time and an extinguishing time of 262 s. Continuous foam supply for 10 min cooled the transformer oil temperature below 100 °C. The sprayed foam layer completely covered the fuel surface, and no re-ignition, candle burning, or flash fire occurred in the foam-covered fuel after extinguishment, with residual fuel remaining. The foam extinguishing agent used in the IGFS system is a 3% AFFF (aqueous film-forming foam) solution, classified as fire performance level IA, with an electrical conductivity of 1 100 μS/cm. Under the conditions of a foam solution flow rate of 1 747.8 L/min and a gas-to-liquid ratio of 6.5∶1.0, the measured expansion ratio was 8.5, and the 25% drainage time was 4.1 min, the spray pipe's range exceeded 7 m, and symmetrical spraying from both sides could cover a width of 14 m. Related Articles | Metrics

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Study on the inhibition efficiency of foam water spray system on transformer sump fire Wang Lizhi, Zhao Xinyang, Yin Qiyun, Cheng Cheng 2026, 45 (9):  112-118.  Abstract ( 7 )   PDF (1461KB) ( 1 )   This research focuses on the fire extinguishing of transformer fires in Ningxia 330 kV substation, and conducts in-depth research on the fire extinguishing efficiency of aqueous film forming foam extinguishing agent (AFFF). In view of the local oil fire caused by serious leakage of transformer, round stainless steel oil pans with diameters of 0.6, 1.0, 1.5 m are used in this test to simulate local oil fire scenarios of different scales. And then we focus on the fire suppression performance of foam water spray under different oil pan sizes, so as to provide scientific basis and effective strategic guidance for the relevant layout design, nozzle flow selection and fire extinguishing agent consumption of foam water spray fire extinguishing system of transformers in Ningxia Power Grid. The results show that the temperature change of the oil pan can be divided into three stages: combustion development, steady combustion and extinction attenuation. When the diameter of the oil pan increases from 0.6 m to 1.5 m, the fire extinguishing time is significantly prolonged, and the fire extinguishing time of the 1.5 m diameter oil pan foam water spray increases by 145% compared with the 0.6 m diameter oil pan. This phenomenon is attributed to the expansion of fuel evaporation surface area and the increase in heat release rate (HRR); The steady-state HRR of 0.6, 1.0, and 1.5 m oil pans reached 200, 800, and 1 200 kW, respectively, but the increase in HRR during the flame intensification stage decreased with increasing oil pan diameter. At the initial stage of foam injection, the flame was temporarily strengthened due to the acceleration of fuel evaporation and air mixing effect, but as the injection continued, the fire was extinguished through surface cooling, oxygen isolation and fuel dilution. The research further establishes the correlation equation between the fire extinguishing time of air foam and the size of oil pan, which provides a theoretical basis for the differential design of fire extinguishing systems for substations with different voltage levels. Related Articles | Metrics

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Experimental study on fire extinguishing characteristics of high expansion retardant foam with a large aperture air-water swirl jet Wang Hanyi, Ma Zhongfei 2026, 45 (9):  119-125.  Abstract ( 5 )   PDF (1661KB) ( 3 )   Existing high-expansion foam fire extinguishing technology still faces several challenges and its effectiveness needs improvement. To address this, this paper proposes a large-aperture air-water swirling jet high-expansion retardant foam fire extinguishing technology that requires no on-site power supply. Its working principle is analyzed, and experiments were conducted on foam extinguishing agent component optimization, internal parameter optimization of the air-water jet foam generator, retardant concentration optimization, and comparative tests of liquid fire extinguishing using different air-driven foam generators. The results indicate that the foam extinguishing performance is influenced by the composition ratio of the foam agent, the type of foam generator, the structural parameters of the air-water jet foam generator, and the concentration of the retardant. Optimal foaming performance was achieved with a mass ratio of 5:3 of Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate (SDS) to Sodium Secondary Alkyl Sulfonate (SAS) and a mass concentration of 1.5 g/L for Coconut Monoethanol Amide (CMEA). For the air-water jet foam generator, the optimal foaming performance occurred at a compressed air flow rate of 18 m³/h, a nozzle aperture of 10 mm, using the No. 2 jet tube, a throat-to-nozzle distance of 250 mm, and a foam mesh size of 12 mesh. The optimal fire extinguishing performance was obtained at a retardant mass concentration of 8 g/L. Comparative tests demonstrated that the large-aperture air-water swirling jet foam generator outperformed both the small-aperture air-water jet foam generator and the compressed air foam generator in all foaming and fire extinguishing performance indicators, achieving superior fire suppression effectiveness. Related Articles | Metrics

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Experimental study on extinguishing boiling-over oil fires with different foam fire extinguishing agents Jing Lishuai, Hao Tianzi, Hu Cheng, Shen Kailiang, Zhang Xianzhong 2026, 45 (9):  126-132.  Abstract ( 7 )   PDF (2756KB) ( 1 )   Based on the standard oil-pan fire extinguishing test model, a high-temperature oil layer with a thickness of approximately 1 cm and a wide temperature range of 300~500 ℃ was constructed, and a repeatable test and evaluation method for extinguishing boiling-over oil pool fires was established. Fire extinguishing tests were conducted using four types of foam extinguishing agents. The results indicate that both I A-grade 6%AFFF and 3%AFFF/AR can achieve rapid fire suppression within 1 min. The ranking of fire extinguishing effectiveness is I A-grade 6%AFFF and 3%AFFF/AR > II B-grade 3%FP > III B-grade 3%S, which is consistent with the performance grade ranking of the foam agents. This confirms that the established evaluation method can effectively distinguish the fire-extinguishing performance differences of different grades of foam agents on boiling-over oil pool fires. Furthermore, the time corresponding to the maximum cooling rate of the oil surface temperature is in close agreement with the 90% fire-control time of the foam agents. The underlying mechanism is that the effective foam coverage on the oil surface eliminates the radiant heat feedback from the flame, thereby demonstrating that foam coverage effectiveness is the dominant factor influencing the extinguishing performance of boiling-over oil pool fires. Related Articles | Metrics

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Effect of organically modified titanium dioxide on the performance of intumescent waterborne fireproof coatings Wang Changgeng, Liu Yang, Huang Zhen, Zhang Sheng, Wang Junsheng 2026, 45 (9):  133-139.  Abstract ( 4 )   PDF (5253KB) ( 2 )   Aiming at improving the char layer strength and fire resistance of intumescent waterborne steel-structure fireproof coatings, titanium dioxide was modified with boron/silicon ceramic precursors and phytic acid, and then incorporated into coatings formulated with an ammonium polyphosphate-pentaerythritol-melamine intumescent flame-retardant system and waterborne epoxy emulsion together with curing agent as film-forming substances, yielding a series of intumescent char-reinforced fireproof coatings. The results showed that, compared with unmodified titanium dioxide, the introduction of modified titanium dioxide enhanced the adhesive strength of the coatings. With increasing proportion of the modified titanium dioxide, the residual char yield and char layer strength after ablation were improved, whereas the expansion ratio decreased. Notably, the backside temperature of the PBSTi/FPC-2 sample was only 266.4 ℃ after continuous methane-jet torch ablation for 20 min. In addition, compared with the fireproof coating without modified titanium dioxide, its peak heat release rate, total heat release, and total smoke production were all reduced, which is attributed to the participation of modified titanium dioxide in forming a dense and continuous intumescent char layer that effectively impedes heat transfer and reduces the release of combustible volatiles and smoke particles. Related Articles | Metrics

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Study on the compatibility of intumescent fireproof coatings for steel structures with epoxy micaceous iron oxide intermediate paint supporting systems Sun Zhao, Jin Yijie, Jin Xiaofei, Jia Dan 2026, 45 (9):  140-146.  Abstract ( 5 )   PDF (5294KB) ( 3 )   This study aims to investigate the compatibility between intumescent fireproof coatings for steel structures and epoxy micaceous iron oxide intermediate paint systems, to establish an evaluation method for their compatibility, and to provide technical support for material selection in related protective engineering applications. Polarization curve testing, neutral salt spray testing, large-scale panel combustion testing, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), interfacial gap measurement, and water resistance testing were employed to evaluate the individual properties and compatibility of three epoxy micaceous iron oxide intermediate paints (B1~B3) and three intumescent fireproof coatings for steel structures (C1~C3). The results indicate that the B3 intermediate paint exhibited the best corrosion resistance, with a corrosion current density of 1.52 × 10⁻6 A/cm2, while after 20 min of fire exposure, the expanded char layers of the C1 and C2 fireproof coatings remained intact. The coating systems B1C1, B2C2, B3C1, and B3C2 demonstrated good compatibility and water resistance, among which the acrylic-based C2 fireproof coating showed the best compatibility and interfacial adhesion with the epoxy micaceous iron oxide intermediate paints. Methods including microscopic interfacial bonding observation, interfacial gap width measurement, and adhesion testing were proven to be effective approaches for evaluating the compatibility and matching performance between epoxy intermediate paints and fireproof coatings, and can provide technical support for material selection and coating system optimization in corrosion protection and fireproofing engineering applications for steel structures, such as high-speed railway stations and industrial plants. Related Articles | Metrics

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Design of a fire simulation system for crude oil storage tanks based on firefighting force deployment algorithm Guan Lei, Liu Jin, Wang Baoqing, Sun Mingzhe, Wei Lijun, Wang Shouhua 2026, 45 (9):  147-154.  Abstract ( 4 )   PDF (4863KB) ( 0 )   To solve the problems of high cost and high risk in traditional fire-fighting training, this paper proposes a three-dimensional simulation system for crude oil storage tanks based on a firefighting force deployment algorithm. The system enhances the safety of fire-fighting training and the utilization rate of fire-fighting resources through this innovative algorithm. The integration of the algorithm with high-precision parameter modeling makes the deployment plan more scientific and effective. This system has been applied to the "3D simulation and deduction" event of the Third National Competition on Emergency Rescue Technology for Work Safety in Hazardous Chemicals. During the competition, the system frame rate remained above 45 frame per second, and the Pearson correlation coefficient between the system score and the expert score was 0.96. Practical application has verified the scientific validity and effectiveness of the approach. Compared with traditional training methods, it significantly reduces training costs and risks, providing a new technical solution for the deployment of fire-fighting forces and emergency response in crude oil storage tank fires. Related Articles | Metrics

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Design and experimental investigation of a dual-blade double-helix gas-liquid mixer with internal gas-external liquid configuration Zhang Donghui, Zan Ruishuan, Liu Jinlong, Xu Kai, Wang Xia 2026, 45 (9):  155-161.  Abstract ( 5 )   PDF (1872KB) ( 4 )   To enhance the gas-liquid mixing efficiency, foam expansion ratio, and drainage time in compressed air foam fire suppression systems while ensuring effective firefighting performance, a dual-blade double-helix gas-liquid mixer with internal gas-external liquid configuration was developed. OpenFOAM-based simulations validated that the dual-blade double-helix gas-liquid proportioning mixer with internal gas injection demonstrates superior mixing performance, where optimized internal double-helix geometry significantly improves mixing efficiency. An experimental platform was established to comparatively evaluate three configurations: T-shaped mixer (without turbulence generators), conventional SK static mixer, and the proposed dual-blade double-helix mixer. Tested parameters including foam expansion ratio, drainage time, and pressure loss demonstrated the proposed mixer's superior performance. High-flow-rate experiments confirmed the mixer's scalability and adaptability, making it suitable for various large-scale compressed air foam fire suppression systems. Related Articles | Metrics

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Civil aircraft cargo hold fire detection based on fuzzy neural network and D-S evidence theory He Zhixiang, Wang Ligang, Dong Qin 2026, 45 (9):  162-169.  Abstract ( 8 )   PDF (3077KB) ( 3 )   Aiming at the false alarm defect prone to conventional monitoring devices during fire outbreaks, this paper proposes a fire detection algorithm combining fuzzy neural network with D-S evidence theory. Firstly, an intelligent fire detection algorithm is established by integrating the fuzzy neural network and D-S evidence theory. Secondly, fire characteristic parameters including temperature, smoke concentration and CO concentration are taken as the input variables of the proposed algorithm to realize reliable fire identification. Finally, a fire detection system based on the above algorithm is developed and verified via experiments under four typical fire conditions: polyurethane open flame, ethanol open flame, smoldering cotton rope fire and smoldering timber fire. Experimental results demonstrate that the detection accuracy of the developed fire detection system reaches 92.8%, 91.3%, 97.8% and 91.6% respectively for the four fire scenarios, delivering substantially superior performance compared with alternative contrast algorithms. In addition, the average fire response time of the developed system is 2.1 seconds shorter than that of commercially available fire detectors, with a false alarm rate limited to approximately 0.63%. Related Articles | Metrics

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Research on the evaluation system of fire station dispatch task volume Liu Tongtong, Zhang Yan, Li Jibao 2026, 45 (9):  170-177.  Abstract ( 9 )   PDF (1793KB) ( 5 )   To achieve a scientific and rational assessment of task volumes, enhance the work motivation of firefighters, and lay the foundation for optimal resource allocation, this study constructs an evaluation index system based on historical dispatch data. The proposed system incorporates indicators such as task risk, resource occupancy, operational complexity, and firefighters' subjective feedback.A man-hour-factor fitting algorithm framework is introduced to assess task volumes, employing a combination of subjective and objective methods—including the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) and ridge regression—to determine indicator scoring, weight calculation, and workload classification criteria. Based on this, a pilot study was conducted using real data from a city to evaluate task volume. The study concluded that task volume exhibits gradient variations depending on the disposal methods, and that firefighting tasks involve significantly higher workloads compared to other types. This finding is consistent with public understanding, validating the scientific robustness of the evaluation system. A quantitative analysis of workload per fire station and per capita in the city revealed that the average per capita workload in high-load stations was more than eight times that of low-load stations. Fire stations in the main urban area handled larger task volumes, yet maintained appropriate per capita work intensity. In contrast, suburban fire stations may require additional personnel. The establishment of a task volume evaluation system for fire stations provides data-driven support for optimizing resource allocation, helps raise management awareness regarding grassroots stations, and contributes to alleviating workload disparities among stations through rational deployment of personnel and equipment. Related Articles | Metrics

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Exploring the development model of provincial fire and rescue training base systems Ding Xiebin 2026, 45 (9):  178-183.  Abstract ( 13 )   PDF (1279KB) ( 6 )   Fire and rescue services are now routinely confronted with "all-hazards, comprehensive emergency response" tasks. Training bases below the provincial level, however, remain spatially scattered, functionally overlapping, and weakly combat-oriented, constituting a bottleneck for sustained improvement of operational capability. Based on questionnaire and field surveys, and drawing on domestic standards and the practices of HKSAR, Jiangsu, Sichuan, and Yunnan provinces, this paper proposes a provincial-level training-base system from three perspectives: layout, design , and operation. A three-tier "1+N+X" architecture is advanced: brigade-level flagship as the leading force, regional hubs as the fulcrum, and specialized satellites as the supplement. Facilities are designed intensively through "multi-scenario combinations plus intelligent assessment", while a long-term mechanism of "saturated rotation, certified instructors, and strengthened support" is established. The approach remedies functional imbalance, low-quality facilities and instructor shortages. The system can be implemented through "regional planning, intensive construction, and saturated utilization", shifting training resources from fragmented input to systemic efficiency. The model is replicable for the professional and specialized development of fire and rescue services and offers direct support for enhancing core combat effectiveness. Related Articles | Metrics

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Research on data fusion and application of aerial-space-ground video resource base in firefighting and rescue Han Dan, Hong Rupan 2026, 45 (9):  184-192.  Abstract ( 5 )   PDF (1521KB) ( 4 )   In response to the severe challenges and demands faced in the current firefighting and rescue sector, such as increasing fire complexity, harsh rescue environments, and difficulties in information acquisition, this paper elaborates on the architectural design of the Hangzhou aerial-space-ground video resource base, focusing on spatiotemporal alignment, feature extraction, and fusion algorithms for multi-source heterogeneous aerial-space-ground video resources. It proposes strategies for leveraging the fusion of aerial-space-ground video resources to enhance firefighting and rescue capabilities. The paper demonstrates the foresight and practicality of utilizing aerial-space-ground video resource data fusion technology to empower firefighting and rescue efforts in Hangzhou, while also providing robust technical support and practical examples for data fusion applications in firefighting and rescue operations. Related Articles | Metrics